Macro photography is shooting of objects of comparable size to the size of a frame of film or much smaller than it, so that as a result, the image of the object is greater than its actual size.

Macro in principle has no difference from the usual, i.e. you need to bring focus, light metering, set aperture and shutter speed and take a picture.

The main problem for macro photography is focusing. In order to get sufficient depth of field at short distances, it is necessary to set the aperture 1 / 22 or 1 / 16. For example when shooting a lens with a focal length of 50mm depth of field at a distance of 30cm with aperture 1 / 2, 8, is only 4 mm, while the diaphragm 1 / 22 - 4 cm

Since the diaphragm is strongly closed, there is a need to use a tripod. For accurate focusing and framing you have to move the camera along the axis of the lens toward the object, special guide is produced to that, attached to a tripod, which greatly facilitates this process.

Under illumination flare attached to the chamber, part of the frame may be in the shadow of the lens, so it is advisable to use remote flash, or a special ring flash for macro photography.

When you purchase the flash for macro you should use the rule that “bigger is better.” For example when using the flash with the number 30, the diaphragm 22, and use the reflector with coefficient 0.5, the maximum distance for the slide film 25. make 30h0, 05.02.1922 = 0.34 meters. Please note that in these 34 cm is the distance from flash to the lens back and forth, but still have no fence in the shadow of the hull outbreaks of the object itself, but the direct side light gives ugly black shadows.

The best result is obtained under illumination with light from a few flashes with diffusers and reflectors, but you need to use flesh meter as to calculate the result manually is almost impossible.

It must be remembered that, in principle, it is impossible to completely clear picture of the object in the center and at the edges, since the film is flat and the distance to the center and edges of the object will be very different (not to mention the three-dimensional objects).

Special macro lens with different focal lengths are produced for macro, the optics of which allows you to get better quality image. The use of different focal lengths is similar to normal shooting, i.e., the flatter the prospect you want to get, the greater the focal length of the pick. It should be remembered that the macro can be used as usual, that is, if you have such a macro lens with f = 100mm, it can be used as a good portrait shooter.

The simplest way to adapt the lens for macro photography is to use extension tubes, but they do not allow focusing to infinity. It is also possible to use “reverse rings”, by which the lens is mounted in an inverted position, and can focus on close objects. The use of extension tubes negatively affects the image quality and chromatic aberration begins to show at the edges of the frame, i.e., divergence points of different colors. When using extension tubes with a zoom lens – there is the lost of the ability to change focal length at a constant focus, i.e. to rotate the two rings on the lens simultaneously.

Any extension reduces the effective aperture. For example, at 1:1 scale loss of 2 stops. Knowing that the cheap cost zoom lenses have a maximum value of aperture 4-5.6 when shooting in a 1:1 turns aperture 8-11. The autofocus of modern cameras works to aperture of approximately 5.6, i.e. autofocus cannot be used.

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Quite often, budding photographers get a professional film, expecting to get much better results than using a cheaper amateurish, but sometimes the result is not only better but often worse. To understand why this happens, let’s consider the basic differences of professional and amateur films.

Many different types of films are produced, each of which has its own area of application. Characteristics such as grain, sharpness and color stability have similar professional and amateur films are very similar.

All color films are composed of several layers of emulsion, which is beginning to change their characteristics due to aging, immediately after the release of the film, while gradually begins to change color balance of the film. Most manufacturers are introduced into the emulsion of amateur films special additives that slow the process for storage of films at room temperature.

Professional photographers while shooting have to be sure what color balance is given by the film and apply the appropriate filters and amendments to the exposition. In order to maintain the color balance unchanged, the film should be stored at temperatures below 13grad., For example in the refrigerator.

Professional films are bought usually in large quantities with the same number of emulsion to all the films had a common color balance and sensitivity. It is also a little time from capture to developer.

Professional films are sold, usually in packages of several films, and sometimes inside the packages they put data about the sensitivity of emulsion films of the party.

Amateur films are usually stored at room temperature and they are not seen for a long time.

Chemical processes slow down at temperatures below 13grad. and they are proceed approximately the same both in professional and amateur films.

Most professional films should be stored in refrigerators. Exceptions are a number of films for photojournalists, which can be stored under normal conditions.

For professional film is considered acceptable storage at room temperature for up to two weeks, and developing in a week after exposure, without significant change in performance.

Amateur film can be stored at room temperature during their working life. It makes sense to store them in the fridge, if you buy a few films from the same batch (stamped on the package). Then you can use all these films, to give the same results as in the case of professional films.

It is preferably to store all kinds of films in a refrigerator in summer at temperatures above 24grad. Once the film is removed from the refrigerator, it cannot be placed in the chamber earlier than an hour, to avoid condensation of moisture at it.

Thus, the main difference between the professional and the amateur film is the stability of the results, but only within a single party and, with proper storage.

Purchase of one roll of professional film does not bring any significant advantages compared with an amateur. The best result can be obtained by acquiring several amateur films from the same batch and store them in the fridge.

Appropriateness of professional films can be justified in cases when there is no replacement for them with amateur ones. For example, special professional portrait films are issued; the colors are the most balanced to the natural color of human skin.

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Not all amateur photographers have the opportunity to purchase an expensive studio lighting equipment and that’s why they are trying to take photographs in the light of household lamps or halogen floodlights.

The advantage of incandescent lamps in front of a flash is in that a photographer sees black and white image obtained at the facility. The disadvantage is in that the good lighting of the object needs more power incandescent bulbs and it is quite difficult to maintain the color balance in the highlights and shadows.

It should also be born in mind that when using incandescent lamps you have to deal with a fairly slow shutter speeds. For example when covering an object with two spotlights of 500 watt each, and use conversion filter, as well as reflectors to scatter light to the film 100. Abstract will be 1/4-1sek.

The easiest and cheapest way of shooting with incandescent lamps is to purchase three halogen spotlights for street lighting with lamps of 500 watts. In this case, one of them is used as a source of Professional ENG light, creating shadows. It must be placed just above and to the side of the subject. It is advisable to make a frosted glass of the spotlight in order the shadows were not very sharp.

One simple way of matting is putting a thin layer of paper glue on the glass and drying it when the spotlight. You should not apply a thick layer of glue, because the glass can explode when heated.

When taking pictures you should avoid mixing the light from light sources having different color temperatures, such as light from windows and light bulbs, because the result can be unpredictable. Especially you should avoid the light of fluorescent lamps, which give the image of a greenish tint.

However, in some cases, adding another source of light can be used in order to obtain additional effects.

When working with halogen spotlights the special attention should be paid to the fact that there were not easily flammable objects near them as well, as they are very hot spotlight.

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Composition- The union of separate elements into a single artistic whole, in which the content is most clearly disclosed in a specific visual form.

Intersecting (diagonal) line - one of the manifestations of the “golden section” in photography. The basic idea - to make the eyes move in a certain direction. The starting point of line is desirable to have in one corner of the frame. It is believed that the upper-left corner is the best starting point because most people begin to view images from this angle. There are other possible locations of lines, but they were clearly defined.

Select an object - you can make setting the lens at a shallow depth of field. Using an open aperture allows you to emphasize the main object and blur the secondary.

Isolation of contrast-gazing at photos of eyes usually focuses on the most contrasting places, and it can be used to attract attention to certain places. In color photography the same role is played by color contrast, a polarizing filter can help to improve color contrast.

Object borders. An interesting effect of using the frame object (the object shot through the arch, shooting out of the cave, etc.).

Isolation of light - allows you to select the desired object, compared to other less-lit. Exposure measurement must be done on the illuminated area.

The use of lines - lines have an emotional impact on the viewer, the curved lines calm, broken lines act as a stimulus; vertical lines give greatness; horizontal - calm and serenity; diagonal - dynamism.

You should avoid straight lines that go beyond the frame, as they divide the frame into parts, or at least have them so that they have not shared the frame into equal parts. As it is desirable that at the end of lines was an object to look did not go beyond the frame.

It is better to place vanishing point of parallel lines outside the center of the frame in perspective.

Method of introducing lines is frequently used - these are lines that originate in one of the lower corners of the image and lead to its semantic center, usually located at the “golden section”. Such a line can be found in almost every story: the path, an elongated object, the line of separation of tones or colors.

Diagonal construction gives the dynamics of the picture. In this case the main line tracks inclined and therefore unstable.

In front of a moving object you must leave more space than behind him.

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Talbot, William Henry Fox (1800-1877), English physicist, chemist, inventor of the negative-positive process of photography (calotype from the Greek. Words kalos - beautiful and typos - the imprint), later it was given the name of talbotype.

The idea of the photographic process was born in a scientist in 1833. Talbot tried to copy the views of nature with a pinhole camera. But he did not possess the skills of drawing.

In 1834 Talbot invented a light-sensitive paper. He fixed the received image with the solution of sodium chloride (common salt) or potassium iodide. First photos of Talbot were simple photogram, ie photocopies obtained by contact. Then he “has combined” the camera obscura with a microscope with natural lighting, and received a positive photographic print from a negative.

In 1835, Talbot recorded a sunbeam. It was a snapshot of a lattice window of his home. Talbot used a paper impregnated with silver chloride. Exposure lasted for an hour.

Talbot received the world’s first negative. Attaching a light-sensitive paper prepared by the same method, he first made a positive impression. The way of shooting an inventor named calotype, meaning “beauty.” So he showed the possibility of replicating shots and tied the future of photography with the world of beauty.

The Talbot invention was called photography and the word “negative” and “positive” began to circulate.

In 1840, scientists discovered that when iodized photo paper (paper with a layer of silver nitrate, sustained in a solution of potassium iodide) to sensitize it with the gallic acid, and then to expose in the camera for a short time, then it will be a hidden image which can then display a mixture of gallic acid and nitrate silver. Talbot named his invention calotype.

Calotype of Talbot and Daguerreotype of Daguerre had fundamental differences. In a daguerreotype a positive, the mirroring image on a silver plate appeared at once. This simplifies the process, but it makes impossible to copy. In the first calotype was fabricated negative, from which one could make any number of positive impressions. Therefore calotype is much closer to modern photography, despite the fact that the quality of daguerreotypes was much higher than calotype.

In 1843, the first time to make positive seal with the increase, in the same year he opened a printing plant for the manufacture of printing plates of his book The Pencil of Nature (1844-1846) - the world’s first editions, illustrated with photos. In 1851, Talbot spent the first photo shoot with a very small exposure, and the following year patented a method of photographing with the imposition of the “screen” on a photographic plate, which became the forerunner of the method of obtaining a raster gray-scale image.

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Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (November 18, 1787 - July 10, 1851) - French artist and inventor, one of the creators of photography.

According to legend, in the summer of 1835 Daguerre after another unsuccessful shooting, when the plates have not received any pictures, put them away in a cabinet with chemicals. Opening it a few days later, he was surprised to see a bright positive image on polished silver. Guessing that the case is in the vapor of some substances that were stored in a locker, he chose the simplest method for sorting and successive elimination of reasons: everyday he put in a cabinet the new exposed plate removing the chemicals one by one. And found that the conversion of the sensitive layer caused by a few drops of mercury from a broken thermometer. Daguerre himself wrote about it: “I was so overwhelmed by many previous disappointments that did not even feel joy. Do not forget that this discovery came only after eleven years of disappointing experiments that oppressed my spirit.” Almost another two years left in search of the fixing composition - sodium chloride solution.

This still life picture Daguerre handed to the Louvre in 1837as proof of his success.

Daguerreotype - a way to directly obtain a positive image when shooting. It is the first practical method of photography. It lies in the fact that the silvered copper plate is carefully polished, then just before the shooting was treated with iodine vapor, resulting in a thin layer of light-sensitive silver iodide. Under the action of light in this layer appears a latent image, shown by mercury vapor. The resulting image is fixed with a solution of sodium thiosulfate. This method lasted until the invention of moist collodion process in 1851. It was necessary to extract tens of minutes to capture the silver plate of any kind at least in general terms. Take pictures of people was practically impossible. To take a picture of a man, his face was “whiteout” with chalk and the hair was sprinkled with powder - more rays of light reflected from the face and hair fell in the camera obscura then. Even so, it was necessary to sit before the camera in the sun for a long time. Drawing on the plate was difficult to consider: unpleasantly struck high gloss image. In addition, the image was very fragile, easily erased at the slightest touch.

August 19, 1839 way daguerreotype was announced at a joint meeting of the two academies - Science and Fine Arts. A brochure describing the process during the year stood 29 editions in France and six abroad, and enthusiasm for a daguerreotype was universal and in a few weeks it was spread throughout the world.

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Camera obscura (Latin. Samera - room and armor. Obscura - dark) - the simplest form of camera. It is a light-tight box with a hole in one wall and a screen (ground glass or a thin white paper) on the opposite wall. Rays of light passing through the hole, creating the image on the screen.

The first camera obscura was represented by a darkened room (or large boxes) with a hole in one wall. Mention of the camera obscura is found as far back as the 5th century BC. - Chinese philosopher Tu Mi described the emergence of pictures on the wall of a darkened room. Mention of the camera obscura is found in Aristotle.

Arabian physicist and mathematician of X century Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who studied the camera obscura, concluded the linearity of the propagation of light. Apparently the camera obscura was first used for drawings from life of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). He also described it in detail in his “Treatise on Painting.”

In 1686 Johannes Zahn has designed a portable camera obscura fitted with a mirror at an angle of 45

Joseph Nicephore Niepce (March 7, 1765 - July 5, 1833) - French inventor, best known as the pioneer of photography.

Since the time of Rembrandt’s etchings were prepared for lacquer-based asphalt. At the end of the XVIII century it became known that the asphalt becomes light and brightens and loses its solubility under the exposure. Niepce had an idea: to put the finishing touches on etching, not scratching lacquer, and acting on the surface of the light.

Niepce knew that the asphalt becomes light and brightens and loses its solubility in kerosene. Powdered asphalt dissolves in lavender oil. And this solution, using swabs from the thin skin rubbing different substrates - glass, zinc, copper, silver plate, lithographic stone. Asphalt - a substance, insensitive to light. Therefore, the first Niepce experimented with it without a camera obscura. He covered a glass plate with a thin layer of asphalt solution, after drying, copied it by direct sunlight, engraving, paper substrate which was oiled to make it more transparent to light. After that he put the plate into a saucer with a mixture of lavender oil and kerosene, which dissolves the asphalt in places protected from light lines of engraving. After washing with water and drying the plate slightly brown image prints were remained.

Until today, this method is used in a variety of options, but it was completely unsuitable for photographic applications. The fact that the varnish can pass acid, with which the copper board is hounded, or do not miss it. Therefore, the Niepce process is suitable only for playing line drawings. That the inventor did not realize until the end of his days trying to do the impossible. Again and again he has exhibited and washed in a solvent boards, covered with asphalt varnish. He got weak, but quite a clear picture. Then he began etching, but nothing worked. Light did insoluble at different depths only the top layer of asphalt, solvent removed it from completely unexposed areas and penetrated by a partially changed, weakening them. In these places acid etched unevenly - just across the defects of the layer. A defect was greater, the thinner the layer of insoluble, so something like the transmission of tones yet happened, but very rude. In addition, because of the low sensitivity of asphalt exposure was very high: even on a bright sunny day at one shot took about eight hours.

In 1826 Niepce with the camera - obscura on a metal plate coated with a thin layer of asphalt shot the view from the window of his studio. He shot and called it heliography (solar design). The exposition lasted eight hours. The image was of very poor quality, and the place was barely distinguishable. But from that snapshot photography began.

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